SUMMARY ONE
Jani
Professor B.
English 113B
28 January 2014
Professor B.
English 113B
28 January 2014
Summary of the video “Maternal
Mortality in Somaliland”
In their video, “Maternal Mortality
in Somaliland,” Maro
Chermayeff, Jamie Gordon and Mikaela Beardsley report about the maternity
hospital that is run by Edna Adan. Adan has put up the hospital in order to
fight the high maternal mortality rate in Somaliland. Chermayeff, Gordon and
Beardsley present Adan as a forerunner in the fight against maternal mortality,
which, in Somaliland, has its causes in the lack of proper healthcare. In the
video Adan explains that in other parts of the world mothers do not die for the
reasons they do in Somaliland, because nearly all the health conditions they
suffer, have a cure. Chermayeff, Gordon and Beardsley also bring to light that
there are honor issues in accepting the least amount of healthcare available.
These issues include cultural aspects, such as that a woman who receives
healthcare is not as strong as a woman who can survive without proper
healthcare.
Work Cited
Chermayeff,
Maro, Jamie, Gordon and Mikaela, Beardsley. Maternal
Mortality in Somaliland. PBS Video,
PBS Video, 10 January 2012. Web. 29 January 2014.
SUMMARY TWO
SUMMARY TWO
Jani
Professor B.
English 113B
4 February 2014
Professor B.
English 113B
4 February 2014
Summary
of the excerpt “Betrayed”
In the
excerpt of her memoir “Betrayed,” Latifa
Ali describes how she had to live with the fear of honor killing because of her
attempt to escape from Iraq. Ali writes that she was born in the northern part
of Iraq, but she grew up in Australia. Ali had returned to Iraq in order to
marry a man her family had planned to be her husband. Ali describes how she
didn’t want to marry this man and how she wants to escape back to Australia.
This escape is so dangerous because Ali is not a virgin, which, she writes,
might lead her father to kill her in order to save their family’s honor. Ali’s
colleague Matt helps Ali to plan an escape with the help of American military
based in Northern Iraq. On her way to Baghdad, Ali’s escape is stopped by a
Kurdish American female military personnel.
Work Cited
Ali, Latifa. “How Culture
Shapes Gender Roles.” Betrayed. N/A: 2009. 155-162. Print.
SUMMARY THREE
SUMMARY THREE
Jani
Professor B.
English 113B
8 February 2014
Professor B.
English 113B
8 February 2014
Summary
of the article “Intergenerational Attitude Changes Regarding Female Genital
Cutting in Nigeria”
In their research article, “Intergenerational Attitude
Changes Regarding Female Genital Cutting in Nigeria,” Olubunmi Akinsanya Alo
and Babatunde Gbadebo describe the results they found about female genital
cutting in Southwestern Nigeria. Alo and Gbadebo define female genital cutting
as any procedure that involves partial or total removal of the female genitalia
for nonmedical reason. Research done by Alo and Gbadebo included the interviews of 420 mothers in
several tribal areas of Southwestern Nigeria. The research finds reasons
for female genital cutting and to see if there are any differences between the
mothers and their daughters depending
upon whether or not they have been cut. Alo and Gbadebo report that
there are several reasons for mothers to allow their daughters to be cut. They found these reasons to include
the tradition that when a woman is cut, only then can she actually become a
part of the society, cutting prepares women for marriage and that cutting is
meant to decrease women’s sexual appetite. Alo and Gbadebo also found that even
the mothers who do not approve of the cutting are likely get their daughters
cut because of social pressure. Alo’s
and Gbadebo’s research found that the best way to stop female genital
cutting is to provide women with education which allows financial independency.
Socioeconomic status seems to correlate with decreased female genital cutting.
Alo and Gbadebo also note that there is a need for law enforcement. Although female genital cutting is
illegal, it is not enforced in a manner that would protect women’s rights.
Work Cited
Olubunmi, Akinsanya, Alo and
Babatunde, Gbadebo. “Intergenerational Attitude Changes Regarding Female Genital Cutting in Nigeria.” Journal of Women’s Health 20.11 (2011): 784-791. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 Feb. 2014.
ESSAY ONE, DRAFT ONE
Alo, Olubunmi,
Akinsanya, and Babatunde, Gbadebo. “Intergenerational Attitude Changes Regarding Female Genital Cutting in
Nigeria.” Journal of Women’s Health
20.11 (2011): 784-791. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 Feb.
2014.
Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of America. The World Factbook, Nigeria, 28 Jan. 2014. Web. 11 Feb. 2014.
Ngianga-Bakwin, Kandala, Ngozi Nwakeze and Shadrack Ngianga, Kandala. “Spatial Distribution of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria.” American Journal of Tropical Medical Hygiene 81.5 (2009): 784-792. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 Feb. 2014.
ESSAY ONE, DRAFT TWO
Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of America. The World Factbook, Nigeria, 28 Jan. 2014. Web. 11 Feb. 2014.
Ngianga-Bakwin, Kandala, Ngozi Nwakeze and Shadrack Ngianga, Kandala. “Spatial Distribution of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria.” American Journal of Tropical Medical Hygiene 81.5 (2009): 784-792. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 Feb. 2014.
ESSAY ONE, DRAFT ONE
Jani
Professor B.
English 113B
10 February 2014
Professor B.
English 113B
10 February 2014
Preventing
the Tragedy in Nigeria
Women’s rights are an issue in every country of the
world, though the severity of the problem varies from country to country. The
most horrific kinds of violation of women’s rights are those that are also
considered as violation of human rights. Female genital mutilation is commonly
practiced in many traditional cultures around the world, but most frequently it
happens in Africa and especially in the sub-Saharan Africa. Nigeria is part of
the sub-Saharan Africa and it has the largest population in Africa, over 174,000,000.
(CIA, The World Factbook). Because of the large number of population, one third
of the cases of female genital mutilation in Africa appear in Nigeria. Nigeria’s
population is growing very rapidly, but at the same time there is no decrease
in the percentage of women who’s genitals are mutilated. The female genital
mutilation in Nigeria has to be prevented otherwise millions of women will suffer
severe health problems throughout their lives.
Female genital mutilation means any kind of removal and or altering the external genitalia for nonmedical reasons. In Nigeria, 71 to 75 percent of women have gone through female genital mutilation (Alo and Gbadebo). According to Alo and Gbadebo, the mutilation is done using various instruments and it is carried out in varying environments. Usually the instruments that are used to perform the operation are unsterilized and include such objects as scissors, pieces of glass and razor blades. Over 50 percent of the Nigerian people live in the rural areas (CIA, The World Factbook) and this means that for sure most of the procedures are done in cottages in the villages that have no guarantee of clean water or any kind of healthcare for emergencies. The procedure is done by traditionally trained, usually, elderly women. There are also attendants that help to keep the woman from moving while the procedure is done. The attendants are necessary because the mutilation causes such severe pain that nobody could stay still while it is done.
After the mutilation is done, there are several health consequences that the female will encounter. Immediately after cutting the genitalia most women will suffer from heavy bleeding, shock, acute urinary infection and pelvic inflammatory disease among others (Alo and Gbadebo). It is also possible that the mutilated female will die from bleeding and shock. HIV and hepatitis B infections are also a risk caused by the genital mutilation (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala). The risk is present because of the fact that the same equipment is used to mutilate several women at the same time. Unfortunately the immediate health effects are not the only ones caused by the genital mutilation.
In addition, there are also several long-term consequences that the mutilated women have to live with, most of which will last a lifetime. Long-term consequences include painful urination, difficulty in menstruation and the inability to enjoy sexual intercourse. Also fertility can be affected (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala). Giving birth is also very painful and complicated for women who have their genitals mutilated. Severe pain and complications during childbirth often lead to cesarean section and heavy bleeding. Because of the complications, there is a great chance that the baby will die during labor (Alo and Gbadebo). Most women will also suffer from depression, anger and other mental health conditions because of the genital mutilation.
Although the health effects of female genital mutilation are of such severe nature, the tribal cultures of Nigeria still see it as a positive thing for the women’s development. One of the most important reasons for the mutilation is to prepare women for marriage (Alo and Gbadebo). Preparing, in this case, refers to the socialization of women into their culture. It means that the mutilation is a part of the process of growing up and becoming a fully excepted member of the tribe. It is also thought that the mutilation decreases the sexual appetite of women. This is seen as a sign of a good wife, because the female is less likely to cheat, when her sexual desires are not as strong. This is actually the part of the reasons that most likely hold some truth behind it, but not necessarily because of the mutilation decreasing sexual appetite. The mutilation of the female genitalia makes intercourse so painful that most women will only feel pain during sex. This is most likely to lead in a decreased amount of sex (Alo and Gbadebo).
Moreover the reasons for female genital mutilation include, what is believed in the tribal communities, health reasons. It is believed that the women who are mutilated are more fertile and they will give birth to a healthy offspring. The tribal cultures of Nigeria also believe that mutilating the female genitalia makes it more hygienic and it prevents women from diseases. Obviously, neither one of these reasons is not true, but the tribal beliefs are very strong in the Nigerian culture, even in the more urban areas of the country (Alo and Gbadebo). Ngianga-Bakwin’s, Nwakeze’s and Kandala’s research also suggests that the most important reason for female genital mutilation is the deep rooted tribal culture in the Nigerian population. This view is also supported by the fact that the prevalence rate of female genital mutilation shows no significant decrease between the rural and the urban areas.
Even though the urbanization and the rising standards of living has had no critical effect on decreasing the rate of female genital mutilation, the socioeconomic factors still play an important part in preventing mutilation. Alo’s and Gbadebo’s research suggests that the education of women is a key factor in the decreasing of female genital mutilation. Education alone is not the answer, but rather what usually happens after the women get educated. If a woman is able to get a steady flow of income, after she gets her education, it usually leads to higher standards of living. After reaching a higher level of education and getting on a higher socioeconomic level, women are less likely to get their daughters mutilated (Alo and Gbadebo).
In Nigeria the problem is that even though there are a number of people and women who oppose to the genital mutilation, these people will still get their daughters mutilated. The pressure of the traditional cultures and tribal habits is so strong that educating about the dangers of female genital mutilation alone is not an efficient way of stopping it. Educating the public has had somewhat of an effect in a way that some of the states in Nigeria have banned female genital mutilation (Alo and Gbadebo). Even though these states include the ones with the highest rates of mutilation, it has not changed the habits. Laws are not enforced and even if they were, the punishments are not harsh enough to stop any action against female genital mutilation. Laws in some of the states include a maximum punishment of six months in jail or a fine of ten dollars (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
To prevent female genital mutilation several actions has to be made. The Nigerian government should pass a law that would strictly outlaw any kind of mutilation. Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala also suggest that the laws should be enforced and the punishments should be raised for a level that would send a clear message to stop female genital mutilation. At the same time the public should be educated about the dangers of mutilation, so that everyone, in the tribal communities as well, would know and understand the health effect the mutilation has. One way to add to the effectiveness of the prevention is to get each tribe to make a collective decision to end the mutilation (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
Any of the mentioned ways to stop female genital mutilation in Nigeria will not work alone. All the measures to stop the mutilation has to start at the same time. In addition, the work should begin immediately. The Nigerian population is not only the eight largest in the whole world (CIA, The World Factbook), but it is also growing very rapidly. Prevention of the mutilation should start immediately because the longer it takes, the more people there will be in favor of the procedure. Changing the attitudes and tribal habits is not easy, nor fast. The prevention should start from educating the younger generations. At the same time new strict laws should be introduced with strict enforcing. The change would most likely take place in the cities first, but slowly the individual tribal cultures would change as well.
Female genital mutilation means any kind of removal and or altering the external genitalia for nonmedical reasons. In Nigeria, 71 to 75 percent of women have gone through female genital mutilation (Alo and Gbadebo). According to Alo and Gbadebo, the mutilation is done using various instruments and it is carried out in varying environments. Usually the instruments that are used to perform the operation are unsterilized and include such objects as scissors, pieces of glass and razor blades. Over 50 percent of the Nigerian people live in the rural areas (CIA, The World Factbook) and this means that for sure most of the procedures are done in cottages in the villages that have no guarantee of clean water or any kind of healthcare for emergencies. The procedure is done by traditionally trained, usually, elderly women. There are also attendants that help to keep the woman from moving while the procedure is done. The attendants are necessary because the mutilation causes such severe pain that nobody could stay still while it is done.
After the mutilation is done, there are several health consequences that the female will encounter. Immediately after cutting the genitalia most women will suffer from heavy bleeding, shock, acute urinary infection and pelvic inflammatory disease among others (Alo and Gbadebo). It is also possible that the mutilated female will die from bleeding and shock. HIV and hepatitis B infections are also a risk caused by the genital mutilation (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala). The risk is present because of the fact that the same equipment is used to mutilate several women at the same time. Unfortunately the immediate health effects are not the only ones caused by the genital mutilation.
In addition, there are also several long-term consequences that the mutilated women have to live with, most of which will last a lifetime. Long-term consequences include painful urination, difficulty in menstruation and the inability to enjoy sexual intercourse. Also fertility can be affected (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala). Giving birth is also very painful and complicated for women who have their genitals mutilated. Severe pain and complications during childbirth often lead to cesarean section and heavy bleeding. Because of the complications, there is a great chance that the baby will die during labor (Alo and Gbadebo). Most women will also suffer from depression, anger and other mental health conditions because of the genital mutilation.
Although the health effects of female genital mutilation are of such severe nature, the tribal cultures of Nigeria still see it as a positive thing for the women’s development. One of the most important reasons for the mutilation is to prepare women for marriage (Alo and Gbadebo). Preparing, in this case, refers to the socialization of women into their culture. It means that the mutilation is a part of the process of growing up and becoming a fully excepted member of the tribe. It is also thought that the mutilation decreases the sexual appetite of women. This is seen as a sign of a good wife, because the female is less likely to cheat, when her sexual desires are not as strong. This is actually the part of the reasons that most likely hold some truth behind it, but not necessarily because of the mutilation decreasing sexual appetite. The mutilation of the female genitalia makes intercourse so painful that most women will only feel pain during sex. This is most likely to lead in a decreased amount of sex (Alo and Gbadebo).
Moreover the reasons for female genital mutilation include, what is believed in the tribal communities, health reasons. It is believed that the women who are mutilated are more fertile and they will give birth to a healthy offspring. The tribal cultures of Nigeria also believe that mutilating the female genitalia makes it more hygienic and it prevents women from diseases. Obviously, neither one of these reasons is not true, but the tribal beliefs are very strong in the Nigerian culture, even in the more urban areas of the country (Alo and Gbadebo). Ngianga-Bakwin’s, Nwakeze’s and Kandala’s research also suggests that the most important reason for female genital mutilation is the deep rooted tribal culture in the Nigerian population. This view is also supported by the fact that the prevalence rate of female genital mutilation shows no significant decrease between the rural and the urban areas.
Even though the urbanization and the rising standards of living has had no critical effect on decreasing the rate of female genital mutilation, the socioeconomic factors still play an important part in preventing mutilation. Alo’s and Gbadebo’s research suggests that the education of women is a key factor in the decreasing of female genital mutilation. Education alone is not the answer, but rather what usually happens after the women get educated. If a woman is able to get a steady flow of income, after she gets her education, it usually leads to higher standards of living. After reaching a higher level of education and getting on a higher socioeconomic level, women are less likely to get their daughters mutilated (Alo and Gbadebo).
In Nigeria the problem is that even though there are a number of people and women who oppose to the genital mutilation, these people will still get their daughters mutilated. The pressure of the traditional cultures and tribal habits is so strong that educating about the dangers of female genital mutilation alone is not an efficient way of stopping it. Educating the public has had somewhat of an effect in a way that some of the states in Nigeria have banned female genital mutilation (Alo and Gbadebo). Even though these states include the ones with the highest rates of mutilation, it has not changed the habits. Laws are not enforced and even if they were, the punishments are not harsh enough to stop any action against female genital mutilation. Laws in some of the states include a maximum punishment of six months in jail or a fine of ten dollars (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
To prevent female genital mutilation several actions has to be made. The Nigerian government should pass a law that would strictly outlaw any kind of mutilation. Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala also suggest that the laws should be enforced and the punishments should be raised for a level that would send a clear message to stop female genital mutilation. At the same time the public should be educated about the dangers of mutilation, so that everyone, in the tribal communities as well, would know and understand the health effect the mutilation has. One way to add to the effectiveness of the prevention is to get each tribe to make a collective decision to end the mutilation (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
Any of the mentioned ways to stop female genital mutilation in Nigeria will not work alone. All the measures to stop the mutilation has to start at the same time. In addition, the work should begin immediately. The Nigerian population is not only the eight largest in the whole world (CIA, The World Factbook), but it is also growing very rapidly. Prevention of the mutilation should start immediately because the longer it takes, the more people there will be in favor of the procedure. Changing the attitudes and tribal habits is not easy, nor fast. The prevention should start from educating the younger generations. At the same time new strict laws should be introduced with strict enforcing. The change would most likely take place in the cities first, but slowly the individual tribal cultures would change as well.
Works Cited
Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of America. The World Factbook, Nigeria, 28 Jan. 2014. Web. 11 Feb. 2014.
Ngianga-Bakwin, Kandala, Ngozi Nwakeze and Shadrack Ngianga, Kandala. “Spatial Distribution of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria.” American Journal of Tropical Medical Hygiene 81.5 (2009): 784-792. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 Feb. 2014.
ESSAY ONE, DRAFT TWO
Jani
Professor B.
English 113B
17 February 2014
Professor B.
English 113B
17 February 2014
Preventing
the Tragedy in Nigeria
Women’s rights are an issue in every country of the
world, though the severity of the problem varies from country to country. The
most horrific kinds of violation of women’s rights are those that are also
considered as violation of human rights. Female genital mutilation is commonly
practiced in many traditional cultures around the world, but most frequently it
happens in Africa and especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Nigeria is part of
sub-Saharan Africa and it has the largest population in Africa, over 174,000,000
(CIA). Because of the large population, one third of the cases of female
genital mutilation in Africa appear in Nigeria. Nigeria’s population is growing
rapidly, but at the same time there is no decrease in the percentage of female
genital mutilation. Female genital mutilation in Nigeria has to be prevented otherwise
millions of women will suffer severe health problems throughout their lives.
Female genital mutilation means any kind of removal and or altering of the external genitalia for nonmedical reasons. In Nigeria, 71 to 75 percent of women have undergone female genital mutilation (Olubunmi Akinsanya Alo and Babatunde Gbadebo). According to Alo, and Gbadebo, the mutilation is done using various instruments and it is carried out in varying environments, but generally the instruments that are used to perform the procedure are unsterilized objects, such as scissors, pieces of glass and razor blades. Over 50 percent of Nigerian people live in rural areas (CIA), which means that most of the procedures are done in huts in the villages that have no guarantee of clean water or any kind of healthcare for emergencies. Moreover, the procedure is usually performed by traditionally trained elderly women and attendants that help to keep the woman or girl from moving while the procedure is done. The attendants are necessary because the mutilation causes such severe pain that nobody could stay still while it is done.
Unfortunately the immediate health effects are not the only ones caused by the genital mutilation. After the mutilation is done, there are several health consequences that the female will likely encounter. Immediately after cutting the genitalia most women will suffer from heavy bleeding, shock, acute urinary infection and pelvic inflammatory disease (Alo and Gbadebo). It is also possible that the mutilated female will die from bleeding and shock. HIV and hepatitis B infections are also a risk caused by the genital mutilation due to the use of unsterile instruments (Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin, Ngozi Nwakeze and Shadrack Ngianga, Kandala).
In addition, there are also several long-term consequences that the mutilated women have to endure. Long-term consequences include painful urination, difficulty in menstruation and the inability to enjoy sexual intercourse. Also fertility can be affected (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala). Giving birth is also very painful and complicated for women who have their genitals mutilated. Severe pain and complications during childbirth often lead to cesarean section and heavy bleeding. Because of the complications, there is a greater chance that the baby will die during labor (Alo and Gbadebo). Most women will also suffer from depression, anger and other mental health conditions because of the genital mutilation (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
Although the health effects of female genital mutilation are of such severe nature, the tribal cultures of Nigeria still see it as a positive thing for the young woman’s development. One of the most important reasons for the mutilation is to prepare the woman for marriage (Alo and Gbadebo). Preparing, in this case, refers to the socialization of women into their culture. It means that the mutilation is a part of the process of growing up and becoming a fully excepted member of the tribe. It is also thought that the mutilation decreases the sexual appetite of women. This is seen as a sign of a good wife because the belief is the female is less likely to cheat when her sexual desires are not as strong. This is actually the part of the reasons that most likely hold some truth behind it, but not necessarily because of the mutilation decreasing sexual appetite. The mutilation of the female genitalia makes intercourse so painful that most women will not experience pleasure during sex. This is most likely to lead in a decreased amount of sexual activity (Alo and Gbadebo).
Moreover, tribal communities also believe that the women who are mutilated are more fertile and they will give birth to a healthy offspring (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala). The tribal cultures of Nigeria also believe that mutilating the female genitalia makes it more hygienic and prevents disease. Obviously, neither one of these reasons is true, but the tribal beliefs are very strong in the Nigerian culture, even in the more urban areas of the country (Alo and Gbadebo). Research also suggests that the most important reason for female genital mutilation is the deep-rooted tribal culture in the Nigerian population (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
Tribal culture is also present in the prevalence rate of female genital mutilation, which shows no significant decrease between the rural and the urban areas, thus it appears FGM cannot be attributed to poverty or lack of education. The prevalence rate of FGM in the urban areas of Nigeria is between 56 to 64 percent. This is only around 15 percent less than in the rural areas. Even though the urbanization and the rising standards of living has had no critical effect on decreasing the rate of female genital mutilation, the socioeconomic factors still play an important part in preventing mutilation. Alo’s and Gbadebo’s research suggests that the education of women is a key factor in the decreasing of female genital mutilation. Education alone is not the answer, but rather what usually happens after the women get educated. If a woman is able to get a steady flow of income after she gets her education, it usually leads to higher standards of living. After reaching a higher level of education and getting higher socioeconomic status, women are less likely to get their daughters mutilated (Alo and Gbadebo).
The pressure of the traditional cultures and tribal habits is so strong that educating about the dangers of female genital mutilation alone is not an efficient way of stopping it. Most of the people in Nigeria are aware of the negative health effects though awareness has not helped to prevent FGM. Many states in Nigeria have banned female genital mutilation (Alo and Gbadebo). Even though these states include the ones with the highest rates of mutilation, it has not changed the habits. Laws are not enforced and even if they were, the punishments are not harsh enough to stop any action against female genital mutilation. Laws in some of the states include a maximum punishment of six months in jail or a fine of ten dollars (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
To prevent female genital mutilation several actions need to be made. The Nigerian government should pass a federal law that would strictly outlaw any kind of mutilation. Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala also suggest that unlike at the moment, the laws should be enforced and the punishments need to be severe. At the same time the public should be educated about the dangers of mutilation, so that everyone, in the tribal communities as well, would know and understand the health effect the mutilation has on women. One way to add to the effectiveness of the prevention is to get each tribe to make a collective decision to end the mutilation and include the leaders of the tribes in the decision making process (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
Any of the mentioned ways to stop female genital mutilation in Nigeria will not work alone. All the measures to stop the mutilation have to be instituted collectively. In addition, the work should begin immediately. The Nigerian population is not only the eight largest in the whole world (CIA), but it is also growing very rapidly. Prevention of the mutilation should start immediately because the longer it takes, the more people there will be in favor of the procedure. Changing the attitudes and tribal habits is neither easy nor fast. The prevention should start from educating the younger generations. At the same time new strict laws should be introduced with strict enforcing. The change would most likely take place in the cities first, but slowly the individual tribal cultures would change as well.
Female genital mutilation means any kind of removal and or altering of the external genitalia for nonmedical reasons. In Nigeria, 71 to 75 percent of women have undergone female genital mutilation (Olubunmi Akinsanya Alo and Babatunde Gbadebo). According to Alo, and Gbadebo, the mutilation is done using various instruments and it is carried out in varying environments, but generally the instruments that are used to perform the procedure are unsterilized objects, such as scissors, pieces of glass and razor blades. Over 50 percent of Nigerian people live in rural areas (CIA), which means that most of the procedures are done in huts in the villages that have no guarantee of clean water or any kind of healthcare for emergencies. Moreover, the procedure is usually performed by traditionally trained elderly women and attendants that help to keep the woman or girl from moving while the procedure is done. The attendants are necessary because the mutilation causes such severe pain that nobody could stay still while it is done.
Unfortunately the immediate health effects are not the only ones caused by the genital mutilation. After the mutilation is done, there are several health consequences that the female will likely encounter. Immediately after cutting the genitalia most women will suffer from heavy bleeding, shock, acute urinary infection and pelvic inflammatory disease (Alo and Gbadebo). It is also possible that the mutilated female will die from bleeding and shock. HIV and hepatitis B infections are also a risk caused by the genital mutilation due to the use of unsterile instruments (Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin, Ngozi Nwakeze and Shadrack Ngianga, Kandala).
In addition, there are also several long-term consequences that the mutilated women have to endure. Long-term consequences include painful urination, difficulty in menstruation and the inability to enjoy sexual intercourse. Also fertility can be affected (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala). Giving birth is also very painful and complicated for women who have their genitals mutilated. Severe pain and complications during childbirth often lead to cesarean section and heavy bleeding. Because of the complications, there is a greater chance that the baby will die during labor (Alo and Gbadebo). Most women will also suffer from depression, anger and other mental health conditions because of the genital mutilation (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
Although the health effects of female genital mutilation are of such severe nature, the tribal cultures of Nigeria still see it as a positive thing for the young woman’s development. One of the most important reasons for the mutilation is to prepare the woman for marriage (Alo and Gbadebo). Preparing, in this case, refers to the socialization of women into their culture. It means that the mutilation is a part of the process of growing up and becoming a fully excepted member of the tribe. It is also thought that the mutilation decreases the sexual appetite of women. This is seen as a sign of a good wife because the belief is the female is less likely to cheat when her sexual desires are not as strong. This is actually the part of the reasons that most likely hold some truth behind it, but not necessarily because of the mutilation decreasing sexual appetite. The mutilation of the female genitalia makes intercourse so painful that most women will not experience pleasure during sex. This is most likely to lead in a decreased amount of sexual activity (Alo and Gbadebo).
Moreover, tribal communities also believe that the women who are mutilated are more fertile and they will give birth to a healthy offspring (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala). The tribal cultures of Nigeria also believe that mutilating the female genitalia makes it more hygienic and prevents disease. Obviously, neither one of these reasons is true, but the tribal beliefs are very strong in the Nigerian culture, even in the more urban areas of the country (Alo and Gbadebo). Research also suggests that the most important reason for female genital mutilation is the deep-rooted tribal culture in the Nigerian population (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
Tribal culture is also present in the prevalence rate of female genital mutilation, which shows no significant decrease between the rural and the urban areas, thus it appears FGM cannot be attributed to poverty or lack of education. The prevalence rate of FGM in the urban areas of Nigeria is between 56 to 64 percent. This is only around 15 percent less than in the rural areas. Even though the urbanization and the rising standards of living has had no critical effect on decreasing the rate of female genital mutilation, the socioeconomic factors still play an important part in preventing mutilation. Alo’s and Gbadebo’s research suggests that the education of women is a key factor in the decreasing of female genital mutilation. Education alone is not the answer, but rather what usually happens after the women get educated. If a woman is able to get a steady flow of income after she gets her education, it usually leads to higher standards of living. After reaching a higher level of education and getting higher socioeconomic status, women are less likely to get their daughters mutilated (Alo and Gbadebo).
The pressure of the traditional cultures and tribal habits is so strong that educating about the dangers of female genital mutilation alone is not an efficient way of stopping it. Most of the people in Nigeria are aware of the negative health effects though awareness has not helped to prevent FGM. Many states in Nigeria have banned female genital mutilation (Alo and Gbadebo). Even though these states include the ones with the highest rates of mutilation, it has not changed the habits. Laws are not enforced and even if they were, the punishments are not harsh enough to stop any action against female genital mutilation. Laws in some of the states include a maximum punishment of six months in jail or a fine of ten dollars (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
To prevent female genital mutilation several actions need to be made. The Nigerian government should pass a federal law that would strictly outlaw any kind of mutilation. Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala also suggest that unlike at the moment, the laws should be enforced and the punishments need to be severe. At the same time the public should be educated about the dangers of mutilation, so that everyone, in the tribal communities as well, would know and understand the health effect the mutilation has on women. One way to add to the effectiveness of the prevention is to get each tribe to make a collective decision to end the mutilation and include the leaders of the tribes in the decision making process (Ngianga-Bakwin, Nwakeze and Kandala).
Any of the mentioned ways to stop female genital mutilation in Nigeria will not work alone. All the measures to stop the mutilation have to be instituted collectively. In addition, the work should begin immediately. The Nigerian population is not only the eight largest in the whole world (CIA), but it is also growing very rapidly. Prevention of the mutilation should start immediately because the longer it takes, the more people there will be in favor of the procedure. Changing the attitudes and tribal habits is neither easy nor fast. The prevention should start from educating the younger generations. At the same time new strict laws should be introduced with strict enforcing. The change would most likely take place in the cities first, but slowly the individual tribal cultures would change as well.
Works Cited
Alo, Olubunmi,
Akinsanya, and Babatunde, Gbadebo. “Intergenerational Attitude Changes Regarding Female Genital Cutting in
Nigeria.” Journal of Women’s Health
20.11 (2011): 784-791. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 Feb.
2014.Central Intelligence Agency of the United States of America. The World Factbook, Nigeria, 28 Jan. 2014. Web. 11 Feb. 2014.
Ngianga-Bakwin, Kandala, Ngozi Nwakeze and Shadrack Ngianga, Kandala. “Spatial Distribution of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria.” American Journal of Tropical Medical Hygiene 81.5 (2009): 784-792. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 Feb. 2014.
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